Mechatronics..

What are the mechatronics engineering???

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Different to the geometric definition of Mechatronics, since it began and to this day because of the continued progress with on a daily basis, that you Vsosrd profile
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Mechatronics engineering is the science that links between mechanical engineering and electrical engineering and computer engineering and control systems.

As defined by Takashi Yamaguchi was working in a Taheci Ltd. said: "Mechatronics is the science of the manner in the design of products that act quickly and performs accurate, these properties can be achieved not by mechanical perception alone, but requires the use of controls, sensors and electronics"

Mechatronics is the use of small controllers Microcontrollers and Microprocessors microprocessors and digital electronics in the design and control systems and machinery Smart Smart Machines.

Shall include use of the group of very advanced software engineering.

Why Mechatronics important?

Just as John Ilter deputy program planning for the Xerox Corporation Xerox, "We need a designer able to understand the control theory adequately implemented so the design better," Femikatroncs is the result of the rapid progress now, and can be seen Mechatronics in many industries such as controllers in washing machines, in hard drives, hardware notebooks, in the manufacture of CD-ROM CD-Rom in the control devices mounted on the valves, the PLC systems in the control panels in general, and forgotten the most important objectives of the Mechatronics Robotics Robotics.

Birth Mechatronics

Dates back to 1960 Mechatronics in Japan, where began to be used in one of the companies control there, and then began this term in the diffusion continent of Europe, and was the term given to a computer to control the electric motor.

Began in the seventies of the term spread by the spread of technology or servo control Servo Technology.

In the eighties and with Information Technology Information Technology and the start of the emergence of microprocessors Microprocessors and controllers of small Microcontroller and used in the mechanical works, where it is the term to take an expanded form.

In the nineties with the emergence of communications, joined the Communications also Mechatronics, to increase performance and further progress

As it increased the effectiveness of wireless robot control.

We still see even today that is what Mechatronics us every day, and you can possibly see it more clearly in the Mercedes and BMW, and the Mechatronics began service aviation also is visible in plane Airbus Air Bus A380, the new Mechatronics is the future given, which, as Davor said Harova technical specialist in Ford's Research Laboratory, "The Mechatronics is a blend of technology and techniques, Fbhma help in getting a better product."
The areas of Mechatronics
Control and Automation
Robotics
CAD / CAM
Material and Manufacturing Processes
Monitoring and Inspection Systems

Nuclear Accelerators

The aim of the accelerated charged objects is to guide the beam in the form of energy Bacassaph movement towards the target through the application of electric and magnetic fields and there are several types of these accelerators

Accelerated generally consists of a source of Almahonp particles such as electrons emitted from a hot or priming of atoms Mtoinp mule charged particles under the influence of electric voltage ranging from to 10 million volts. Is determining the course of these particles to be accelerated ray off towards the goal, and be accelerated within the vacuum (low pressure) to avoid dispersion of particles accelerated when colliding with air particles.

Accelerators are classified into three categories on the basis of the energy used to accelerate, as follows:

(1) low-energy accelerators: particles accelerated, producing a capacity ranging from 10 to 100 MeV and often use these accelerators to study the dispersion of particles accelerated interaction with the target material

(2) medium-energy accelerators: it produces a beam of particles accelerated card more than 100 million electron volts to reach 1000 million electron volts. When this energy is studied Alnyuklionat collision with the nuclei of elements has Sntj for these collisions generate particulate matter, such as Almjons accelerators in this study are nuclear powers and verify the installation of the kernel.

(3) high-energy accelerators: a Tantd beam of particles accelerated card more than 1000 million electron volts. The purpose of these accelerators is Antajeh new particles during the collision of these particles accelerated Bonoip elements and then study the properties of the resulting particles

Accelerators have been designed nuclear power up to expedite 10000000 MeV.



The main parts of the reactor

(1) the source of charged particles Ion source: the main source of accelerated particles, consisting of gas ionized by electric discharge are derived particles with positive charge through the electrode with a negative voltage 10000 volts.

(2) Bus ray beam optics: which is the number of routers, consisting of electric and magnetic devices to guide the particles accelerated in the path specified inside an accelerated such lenses in the light depends on the strength of the Lorenz Lorentz force

F = q (vxB)

(3) Target Target: a substance that is put at the end of accelerated testing purposes has been under study for example the experience of nuclear spectroscopy where the study of energy levels and sectional area of the objective in this case, the slice thickness of 10 microns, in the case study the production of secondary particles, a collision of nuclei accelerated with objective, the goal is thick up to 10 centimeter thick, so absorbed energy particles accelerated. In both cases the target is cooled until the temperature not change with the accelerated particle collision with him.

(4) Detector Detector, the part upon which the basic measurements to be obtained from the experiment, such as determining the quality of the resulting particles from the collision, energy and time of survival and the angular distribution of these reagents and a science in itself and we will devote a separate article to talk about.



Types of accelerators

(1) accelerated electrostatic Electrostatic accelerator

(2) accelerated Alscaltron Cyclotron accelerator

(3) Linear accelerator Linear accelerator

(4) accelerator Alsnctorn Synchrotrons

(5) Large Hadron Collider Colliding-Beam accelerator





Accelerated electrostatic Electrostatic accelerator

The simplest kinds of accelerators that are used to accelerate charged particles through a fixed voltage through the relationship E = qV where V accelerating voltage and up to 10 million volts and charge q accelerated particles, E the kinetic energy of the particle. This means that the energy that can be acquired by the particle accelerated up to 10 million electron volts per unit charge, and this energy is sufficient to study the nuclear structure of the nucleus.

The first accelerator was designed on this basis was in 1932 by scientists Cockcroft and Walton voltage where he arrived to accelerate to 800 thousand volts and adopted the principle of its work on the shipment of capacitors in parallel and then converted to connect straight through the circuit shown in Figure

This method is called double-voltage voltage multiplication Pastkhaddm in the first nuclear test in the following reaction

P + 7Li º 4He +4 He

At present, this type of accelerators Iatmj Vandegrav of the birth of the world developed by Van de Graaff in 1932

The idea that the work of the generator Vandegrav on the principles of static electricity as we know that the electric charge settles on the surface of the connector in case electrostatic and the movement of electric charge through a belt of insulating material and often made of silk and get the belt on the electric charge from a corona discharge, a pointed top of the conductive material applied by high voltage up to 20 000 volts and at the head shaped as charge density increases occur dump him working on an electric air ionization Vtendf cation repulsion force in the direction of conveyor belt, carrying a positive charge to the crust of football from an electrical capacitor with the ground. The idea of this generator is shipped Mosul When the internal move the shipment to the crust with football-related procedure as Mosul in the shape of the shipment and settles on the surface of the outer crust and value of the shipment depends on the relationship

V = Q / C

Where C is capacitance, Q Aahnpo V voltage output and in theory it could increase the voltage to indefinitely because the capacitance is infinite and the more Azhadadt value of the shipment has increased the value of effort, but in practice, the value of a burden for the voltage risking to ionize the air and becomes a conductor, leading to put an end to increase the voltage difference can be obtained. To overcome this problem is placed in a container Alvandegrav generator containing a gas, electrically insulating gas such as SF6 at a pressure of 10 to 20 atmospheric pressure

Characterized by the birth of the birth of Vandegrav Walton Kokovrt to prove the value of the voltage and this is very important in the study of cross-sectional area of nuclear collisions to study the levels of nuclear energy.

Have many American universities and research centers in the image generator Alvandegrav note the following laboratory is equipped with the birth of Vandjrav


Where we note on the right of the image generator Alvandjrav within a warehouse containing a gas barrier and accelerated particles released into the tube in the center magnet works on the modified particle spin direction of the target to the left of the image.



Generators based on advanced generator Vandegrav generator Vandegrav Tandem Tandem Van de Graaff and is described in the following schematic form:


Can be obtained at voltage of 20 million volts and is used to study the interaction of accelerated heavy ions. We note the picture to the left of the magnet that is running on character accelerated particles as well as the magnet which works to direct particles to a number of different paths for each path is allocated a specific experience.





Accelerated Alscaltron Cyclotron accelerator

Alsincltron device is a newly designed in 1934 and used to accelerate charged particles to enormous speeds are used in testing nuclear collisions. Here, too, uses both the electric field and magnetic field for this purpose.



The idea of working

Alsincltron consists of two separate pots in the form of the English letter D emptying of the air to reduce the friction of the accelerated particles with air molecules. AC voltage is applied on both sides of both vessels and applied magnetic field perpendicular to both vessels, as shown in Figure

Is released particles to be accelerated in the center of the region between both vessels to take a circular path and return to the center of separation in a time period of T / 2 where T is the time the noise.

By adjusting the frequency of the voltage applied between both vessels to the heart of Qtabithma to coincide with the arrival of the body charged of the buffer zone where the area of electrically gain shipment push to increase the speed and thus increase the radius of rotation of the body charged gradually until it reaches the radius of the container and then come out of gross shipped by expedited (Alsincltron) quickly large depends on the equation

v = qBr / m

This means that the speed of the accelerated particles is directly proportional to the magnetic field applied and half of the country.

The first accelerator was manufactured on this basis by Lawrence and Livingston in Berkeley in the United States in 1931 and had a radius of 12.5 cm and 1.3 Tesla magnetic field and this card accelerated protons produced 1.2 million electron volts. After several years has been the development of accelerator Alsincltron up to a radius of 35 cm and energy to accelerate protons up to 10 million electron volts. At the end of 1930 was built accelerator Sincltron a radius of 75 cm and energy to accelerate protons up to 20 million electron volts.

In the following image Sincltron Accelerator Laboratory Argonne National Laboratory, which shows the upper and lower magnet as well as the picture shows the beam of particles emanating from Toinha accelerated as a result of the air.

Linear accelerator

This is called accelerated as the Linac Enak in which charged particles are accelerated in stages by the AC voltage as in Alsincltron, but the difference that the path of charged particles will be in a straight line where we do not need expensive magnet. Consists of linear accelerator as in the following diagram of several series of cylindrical-shaped electrode which are connected to each other through the source voltage outlet.

Gaining particles accelerated energy from the gap between the cylinders as a result of the voltage applied to them within the cylinder, where there is no room burst particles under the influence of force push for a period of time equal to half the time the periodic voltage AC until the change polarity difference Alhad applied to the cylinder to the next.

The idea that the work of the Linear accelerator on the synchronization between the energy gained by a particle charged between the cylinders with the electric field AC applied to the cylinders and adjust this synchronization, the length of the cylinder designed to build on the speed of particles accelerated after each stage, if half the time periodic voltage applied is t / 2, the length of the cylinder number n Ieky equation

Ln = vnt / 2

The kinetic energy gained after passing the cylinder number n is given to the relationship

1 / 2 mvn2 = neVo

The previous equations have a length of the cylinder n



When particles accelerated out of the cylinder exposed to an electric field as in the following diagram:

Example Linear accelerator is accelerated located at Stanford University in the United States, which was produced in 1967 within a research program high energy physics and this accelerated gives electrons accelerated energy up to 1.2 GB MeV 1.2x109 eV and experiences that have worked with this accelerated on the dispersion of electrons accelerated to select half of Qatar nucleus.


Large Hadron Collider

Large Hadron Collider, is used in the field of nuclear physics, high-energy for the production of new particles by converting the maximum amount of kinetic energy of particles form strongly Almahalp-to-energy (mass) of the new particle. Suppose a beam of particles such as protons were accelerated to hit a view of the hydrogen atoms are produced new particle X as in the following equation:

P + P º P + P + X

Must be greater than the kinetic energy of particles produced energy configuration to calculate the kinetic energy Almtaloip






mohamed ahmed

Ibn al-Haytham

Ibn al-Haytham
Al-Hasan ibn al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham Abu Ali 965-1039. Ibn al-Haytham was an Arab world in mathematics, optics, and engineering, with numerous books and scientific discoveries that have been confirmed by modern science [1].

Is the first between the reality of the vision that the light comes from objects to the eye, and not vice versa as scientists had thought, until his time. And attributed the invention of the camera as a principle work. He first described the eye dissection fully clarify the functions of its members. The first studied the effects of psychological factors and catching.
Birth and upbringing

Born Ibn al-Haytham in the state of Basra in 354 e -965 AD, in the era was booming in various sciences of mathematics and astronomy, physics, medicine and others, there are rushing to study engineering, optics, and read books of his predecessors of the scholars of Greece and the world Andalusian Zahrawi and others in this area, [need Source] wrote several letters he wrote in the science and contributed to the development of the main rules of her, and complete what he had started the great world Zahrawi.

It was in all conditions ascetic in the world; studied in Baghdad, medicine, and passed an examination scheduled for anyone who wants work profession, majoring in medicine Kahala (Ophthalmology), the people of Baghdad, they mean the question in several sciences, although the city was full of elites of the top modern scientists .
His trip to Egypt

Came in the book of the wise Agafti on San Ibn al-Haytham:
«If I worked in Egypt for its achievement pursuant to get benefit in each of the cases of the increase and decrease.»

Bringing saying this to the Fatimid Al-Hakim, sent him some money secretly, and asked him to come to Egypt. And standing for what he wants to do this project, but Ibn al-Haytham after having identified the place of residence and proceeded to study the river along its course, and when he arrived near Aswan, found the Nile water is cracking down on all its aspects, he realized that he was delusional hasty in claiming the estimated upon which to build a dam reserves water flooding, and unable to land his promise to the potential of his time. then returned to the Governor by order of God, apologizing, before the excuse and the governors of the office of one. However, Ibn al-Haytham feared the wrath of the ruling he was afraid that the plot to him, and pretended to go mad, and has been to demonstrate it until the death of the Fatimid . After his death, he returned to pretend to go mad, housing the Dome of the door of Al-Azhar mosque, and took copies of some books worldwide resource for living, not to mention the authoring and translation; where he was proficient in several languages, and discharged at other time of the formation and experience, and so until his death in 1039, has reached what he wrote to 237 manuscript and a letter in the various branches of science and knowledge, has disappeared from much of this literature, but found again under the mattress.
Transfer of scientific approach Ibn al-Haytham

Ibn al-Haytham was adopted in its research on one of two approaches:

1. Extrapolation method
2. Extraction method

In both cases, it depends on experience and observation, the main concern behind the research is to find the truth that are most chest, and set a goal of the research men, which take advantage of the requests and offers them the right, in his lifetime and after his death.

Ibn al-Haytham was believed that the conflicting views is the only way for the emergence of the truth. The Making of the practical experience of a fixed platform to validate the results or error mental or scientific hypothesis, and then try to express the right conclusion, a precise mathematical formulation.
Founder of Light

His first goal which is the Ibn al-Haytham, and lay the foundations of this science in his landscapes. He has written this book in 411 AH / 1021, in which invested experience medical, his experiments, reaching the results and placed on top of a high in the scientific field, and became the one of the founders of the science has changed the look of scientists for many things in this area so the title of scholars (Prince of Light) .
Its impact on modern science

Ibn al-Haytham studied the phenomena of reflection and refraction of light in detail, and violated the opinions of the ancient Knzeryat Ptolemy, was first denied that the vision is done by radiation emitted from the eye, and laid down the fundamentals of eye contact and explain the full autopsy.

Not only did an autopsy on the eye and placed the parts and function of each part. In addition to that he studied the process of vision, mechanisms and psychological factors and external influences on the process of vision.

The corresponding reference book, which was based upon the most important scientists in the development of modern optical technology, which is historically the first to experience the camera, a name derived from the Arabic word: "cockpit", meaning a small dark room, nets, and is attributed to the principle of work. This has helped a lot of Western scientists, including Newton and Kepler.
Contribution to astronomy

In astronomy Flabn Haytham about 20 manuscripts in this area, has been used genius sports in the discussion of a lot of things astronomical, as discussed in his letters some of the things astronomical reasoned discussion, and reflected the genius of the man on one side, on the other hand the depth of experience and knowledge of astronomy, for example His works include:

* High pole: and it retrieved the high pole, and determine the latitude of any place.
* Lights planets: The difference in landscape moon.
* The light of the moon: and proved that the moon reflects sunlight and has no light myself.
* The impact in the face of the moon: in which discussed the lines that you see in the face of the moon, and concluded that the moon consists of several components, each of which differs in the absorption of incident light and reflect it from the sun, and then show this effect.
* Article in the alert placements mistake in how monitoring.
* Correcting stardom - altitudes of the planets.

And many more.
Its contribution to the kinesiology (mechanics)

As in the science of mechanics was his study of mechanical phenomena in the context of his experiences in the science of light, but reached to monitor the following:

- That the movement of two types:

*; Natural movement: the movement of the body under the influence of weight, which is now known as the "free fall".
*; Occasional movement: a movement that result from the impact of external factor (force), a falling object seen in the utter defeat, the pace has to be stronger and faster if it is longer in length, which depends on the speed of weight and distance traveled by.

- Analysis of movement of the body:

Ibn al-Haytham considered the movement of the body as a vehicle of the two installments (vehicles), one towards the horizon, and the other towards the column on the horizon, and the angle between the two vehicles there, and that the speed with which the body moves is a product of these two installments.

- Lesson when you change the speed of objects colliding according to the characteristics of these objects, the distinction between collision flexible and inflexible, and that was his experience when throwing a ball of steel in his study of light reflection on the surface of iron, and its fall on the surface of wood or dirt.
His contributions to mathematics

It was Ibn al-Haytham contributions outstanding in many sciences is optics; In mathematics, the development of many works, has come to us, including 37 manuscripts, some of which was an explanation and commentary on the books by the first two in this area, and some other basis for the theories of mathematical properties of the triangle and the ball, altitudes and how to extract objects, and so on.
His

Stated that Ibn al-Haytham nearly two hundred books, etc. many messages, the A in engineering and physics, astronomy, arithmetic, algebra, medicine, logic and ethics, the total including those related to math and science education twenty-five, and with regard to philosophy and physics, forty-three, but what written in medicine has reached thirty-part, a book in the medical industry organized by the phrases and the mosques of what he saw as appropriate books of Galen, a thirty-book:

The first proof, and the second in teams of Medicine, and the third in small-scale industry, the fourth in the autopsy, and the fifth in natural forces, and sixth in the benefits of members, and seventh in the views of Hippocrates and Plato, and eighth in the semen, and the ninth in the sound, and X at the illness and symptoms, and atheist ten in types of diets, and the twelfth in the two seas, and XIII to beat the Great, and the Fourteenth Alostksat the opinion of Hippocrates, and fifteenth in the mood and sixteenth in the force of medicines individual and seventeenth in the forces of drug vehicle, and the eighteenth Topics Member Alalmp, and nineteenth-trick heal, and twenty in the maintenance of health, atheist Twenty-quality Alkimus and badness, and the twenty-second in diseases of the eye, and XXIII that the forces of self-belonging to the mood of the body, and the twenty-fourth in the bad mood is different, and Twenty-fifth in the days of two seas, and the twenty-sixth in the many, and the twenty-seventh in the use of bloodletting to cure disease, and twenty-eighth to wilt, and twenty-ninth in the best bodies, body, and nostalgic collection Thirty son of Isaac, from the words of Galen and Hippocrates in the words of food *

The census showed these works that A in the affairs of a major medical transport, mostly for Galen, but was suspended by the increased them, and a thousand other books, are relevant to medicine and treatment, Chrisalth the impact Allhon music in the soul animal at a time were not the treatment of certain diseases psychological, hymns, music has found its way, occupied its place in the world of psychological treatments *
Books that has been written by

* Book of Optics: which is considered a revolution in the world of optics, which has refused a number of theories of Ptolemy in the science of light, after reaching new theories became the nucleus of modern optics.
o One of the main views contained in the book:
o Ptolemy claimed that the vision is done by radiation emitted from the eye to the body visible, and as Ibn al-Haytham came to blow up this theory, stating that the vision is done by radiation reflected from the body towards the visual eye sighted.
o As the Ibn al-Haytham that the light beam is spread in a straight line within the central homogeneous.
o Ibn al-Haytham discovered the phenomenon of reflection of light, and the phenomenon of turning light.
o One of the main achievements that demonstrate the full autopsy eye, and the function of each part of them
* Parallax Moon
* See the planets
* The alarm on the monitoring of the mistake
* Space assets
* Columns of triangles
* Mirrors Holocaust Balqtua
* Mirrors Holocaust Chambers
* How to adumbration
* Message in the twilight
* Explain the origins of Euclid's
* Article in the form of الکسوف
* Message in the space Almsjm المکافی
* Article in the square the circle
* Article in Mstqsap الاشکال Hilalian
* Properties of the triangle on the one hand column
* Known to say unusual in transactions account
* Say in space Ball.
* Book of the Whole of the assets of the account.
* Book in the analysis of engineering problems.
* Article in the analysis and synthesis.


The Empire of Reason
Science and Islam 1

Science and Islam 2

Science and Islam 3

Science and Islam 4

Science and Islam 5

Science and Islam 6

Persian scientists or Arabian scientists ?



mohamed ahmed

discovery of a cave Sri mysterious planet Mar

WASHINGTON: A team consisting of 16 students, Department of Science Faculty of "Iifaragrin Middle" in the state of California, USA, to the discovery of a cave Sri mysterious planet Mars, as part of their study to analyze the images taken by spacecraft of an agency, "NASA."

Results of the analysis reached by the seventh grade students with the college was similar study conducted by Glenn Joshinj world U.S. Geological Survey in 2007, and has pointed to the existence of holes on the surface of Mars is likely to be the caves.

The explanations Joshinj that these caves are basically volcanic craters, formed as a result of volcanic activity witnessed by the planet in one of the geological ages before there is a lull of the eruption, as provided for under the "Arab News Agency astronomy and space."

And led the lava to a process of carving a strong rocky surface of the red planet, leaving the so-called "tunnels or lava tubes."

Temperature then subsided craters and thick roof faded from the rock, that parts of it began in the fall to the interior and formed slots. Geologists were unable to identify the types of materials or sedimentary rocks that buried within these caves to be exact.

According to estimates "Joshinj" view up slot nozzle to about 520 620 feet, a depth of not less than 380 feet.

The presence of caves on Mars would offer the best haven for various forms of life, because it will provide protection from radiation on the surface of the planet and other factors as well.

The agency "NASA" had announced last year to discover seven caves on Mars, said that as the surfaces are cooler than the surrounding surface in the day and warmer during the night. She noted that the thermal situation is not static like caves on the surface of the earth, which mostly retains temperature, but it is consistent with these being deep holes in the ground.

The U.S. space agency, "NASA" intends to take a trip in 2016 to explore more information about the planet Mars, understanding of atmospheric constituents, in particular measuring the proportion of methane.

Has announced "NASA" that the main objective of this task is to draw a map of the gases in the atmosphere of Mars, and the distinction between chemical concentrations for each of these gases, especially methane, which was discovered on the surface of the Red Planet in 2003, resulting from biological activity.

Iron

Geologists confirm that the iron is about 35% of the composition of Earth, as it preserves the balance of earth and iron because the iron minerals more stable and intensity as the density of up to 7874 km 3.

And maintains the iron on the Earth's gravity because it is characterized by the highest degree of magnetism, and needs to be a single atom of iron to the enormous energy than the total solar energy.

Also due to iron out remnants of comets and meteorites, which weighs tens of thousands of tons have been discovered, some in Australia and America.

Did not reach the flag to the benefits of iron only in the early sixties, where scientists found that the origin of iron is not of the earth, but from outer space and that remnants of asteroids and meteors fall to Earth, as the atmosphere prevent some of them to ashes when it enters the scope of the land and the rest Down on the planet different shapes and sizes.

The scientists revealed recently that iron can not be formed within the solar system, as the sun is a star with heat and power is not sufficient for the integration of elemental iron, which is why the scientists say that the iron has been incorporated outside our solar system, and then came down to Earth by comets and meteorites .

Currently, astronomers believe that comets and meteorites is a cosmic projectiles from atoms of different sizes and composed of iron and other metal for that iron is the first metal known on earth as it falls from the sky in a pure form of meteorites.

- Explained, "Arthur Beers," The meteorite was Nksimha to 3 types:

1 - iron meteorites: It consists of iron and nickel by more than 98%.

2 - stone and iron meteorites: It consists of approximately 50% of iron and nickel and the other 50% is composed of rock, called it (olefin).

3 - stone meteorites: which include stones, and stones are divided into several types.

And falling in every year thousands of meteors and comets on the planet, some of which may weigh sometimes tens of tons. In 1902, a meteorite found in the United States amounted to (62 tons), a component of ferro-nickel.

In the mandate of the "Arizona" has the latest Shahab huge crater depth (600 feet) in diameter (4000 feet) has reached amounts of iron extracted from the fragments mixed with nickel tens of tons.

In spite of these advantages that characterize the iron from other metals, but scientists did not reach the industrial importance of iron only during the 18 th century ie after the descent of the Holy Quran in 12 century, where scientists have discovered the iron industry, and discovered the easiest way to remove iron and entered the iron in all industrial areas as its core, it uses the most appropriate metal for the arms industry and the basis for all heavy and light industries as well.

It must be borne in mind that iron is an essential for all living organisms, and plants.

At the end of our conversation on the iron should be noted consensus numerical Ajeeb said Dr. Zaghloul El-Naggar, where shall call him a professor of chemistry in Australia that the figure of Al-iron agrees atomic number of the metal iron is (56) while agreeing No. A-iron atomic number of the metal iron is (26 ), Glory of science Muhammad peace be upon him all these scientific facts.

It seems that iron metal is of great importance as the Almighty to make an entire chapter in the Koran as iron that Almighty Lord of the Worlds creator says in the book universes Aziz.

Allah says: (We sent Our Messengers with Clear Signs and sent down with them the Scripture and the Balance of people with justice, and sent down iron in which very significant benefits to the people and know God and His messengers of victory that God Unseen forces Aziz) [iron: 25]

Say the commentators in this verse is that the iron has been relegated from the sky did not exist on the planet before and are backed up by saying this hadeeth narrated from Umar ibn al-Khattab (may Allah be pleased with him) narrated that the Prophet (peace be upon him) that he (Allah revealed four blessings from heaven: iron, fire, water and salt).

But deep bass Mamni What are the benefits stated in the Qur'an the words of God Almighty, the Wise) very significant and the benefits to the people)

Chemists have found that iron is more stable minerals is not known so far into the metal iron and the stability of his power and intensity of intolerable pressure.

Atomic force microscope

Atomic Force Microscope Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) or force microscope scanner Scanning Force Microscopy (SFM) is a microscope with a high analytical capacity, one of the types of microscopes scanner sensors, which we talked about and the one who Tunneling Microscopy STM scanner in the previous article. However, this microscope has a capacity of up to analyze the parts of a nanometer, where he was beyond reason optical zoom microscopes more than 1000 times. This is a sophisticated microscope scanner for Tunneling Microscopy STM. Invented the atomic force microscope AFM worlds Quate and Gerber in 1986. And provides the first device for use in the laboratory in 1986. This is the most famous tool microscope zoom, measure and move on the nanoscale level.

Recently Scientists Physicists at Osaka University in Japan to use the atomic force microscope AFM in the identification of the chemical composition and determine the type of each atom and their location on the map three-dimensional topography of the surface material at the atomic level. These scientists have discovered that interactions are atomic fingerprint to distinguish the atoms using a microscope AFM.

In this article, of how things work will shed light on this device and check how it works and the most important uses that can be carried out by atomic force microscope system.

Basic principle

Consists of an atomic force microscope AFM cantilever arm of the sensor probe at the end of the component from the top of mind known as a sharp tip is used to scan the surface of the sample. Arm are made of silicon or silicon nitride radius within a few nanometers. When approaching the top surface of the sample probe force generated between the head of the probe and the surface of the sample lead to the deviation of the force in the arm on the strength of the hook. The force would be a mutual mechanical strength or power or force or Vanderfal poetry Kahrostetekip force or magnetic force or the power of the Commonwealth of chemical or force Kzimar or other types of force, as this type of surface that is being studied. Can also study many kinds of force sensors using a special microscope and then called her name, such as magnetic force microscope, magnetic force Microscope (MFM) or scanning thermal microscope, scanning thermal microscopy or otherwise. In all of these mutual force microscopes occur in different kinds of deviation in the arm of an atomic force microscope, this deviation is measured by a laser beam deflection mirror installed on the arm of a microscope. And monitor the reflected laser beam on a matrix of linear Alfotodayud. Photodiodes. There are other ways to measure the deviation such as a scale interferometric optical interfermetry, or using Bisoketrk sensor or electrical capacity. According to the method of measuring the deviation is the design arm of the microscope example, if the measurement method relies on electricity compressibility (Bisoketrok), the arm made of materials Bisoketrok. But is the method of measuring laser rays deviation method more accurate and the most commonly used.
If the sensor is cleared when a certain height from the surface of the sample there may be a risk to the sensor that collide with the surface, In order to avoid this is to use feedback to control the distance between the sensor and the surface of the sample to keep them wrapped up Alambtadlp fixed. And is installed on the base of the sample material Bisoketrk move the sample in the z direction to maintain a constant value of force between the probe and the surface of the sample, as well as moving the sample in two dimensions x and y. There are other types of atomic force microscopes used Bisoketrik 3 crystals, each crystal is responsible for the direction of the traffic trends of the three. In modern designs are installed on the scanner arm Bisoketrik horizontal while the sample is moved only in directions x and y. In the end we get a map of space represent the topography of the surface of the sample.

Can run the atomic force microscope AFM in several types of operation and use this as required and the type of inspection you want. In general, patterns of operation can be divided into two types namely static operating style or mode of communication and the second type is the type of operating or dynamic pattern of non-contact.

Patterns of operation and taking pictures Imaging Modes

Reminded us that there are two major patterns of patterns of device driver and AFM Study are static, which is the withdrawal of the arm across the surface of the sample and not directly measure the topography of the surface through deviations in the arm. The Dynamic mode is oscillating arm near the surface at the resonant frequency of resonance frequency. Are measured by frequency and amplitude and phase and frequency resonance through force between the probe and the surface of the sample. These changes in frequency for the frequency reference gives information on the characteristics of the sample.

Study the pattern of contact or static
In this mode uses the deviation in the top of the sensor signal to the feedback and because the measured signal in this type of noise is being used less arm strength to enlarge the amount of signal deviations. And about the probe from the surface of the sample was designed to force repulsion caused by the electrons on the surface of the sample and the electron probe. Is to maintain a stable amount of power while scanning Altnarip this by maintaining the survival of deviation constant.


Dynamic mode or pattern of non-contact
Pattern of non-contact atomic force microscope



In this mode the sensor is not connected with the surface of the sample. But an arm oscillating at frequency slightly larger than the resonant frequency where the frequency capacity within a few nm (less than 10 nm). The force would be exchanged between the sensor and the surface of the sample is the strength of van der Waals Vanderfal which are dominant at that distance in any order of 1 to 10 nm above the sample, and this force acts to reduce the resonant frequency of the arm. This decrease in the resonant frequency is used in the feedback system that is maintaining the capacity to make the vibration fixed by re-adjust the distance between the sensor and the surface. By measuring the distance between the sensor and the surface while scanning in both directions x, y are plotted Tabgravep image to the surface of the sample using programs designed for it.
In this mode the sensor head is not exposed to any harm NH does not come into contact with the surface of the sample as occurs with the previous pattern. This makes it a preferred style of operating a dynamic and more particularly in the case dealing with the samples softball. But in the case of solid samples, the images taken with both types Tkona identical. But if you find a layer of nano-liquid on the surface of the sample types, the images will be going forward a bit different. Because the sensor in the style related to penetrate the liquid layer to give a picture of the surface below them, while the pattern is the caller will fluctuate over the surface and gives a picture of both the liquid and the surface together.

Pattern you
Single polymer chain, (thickness 0.4nm), recorded the pattern you Tapping mode in aqueous medium at different pH values

Often consists of a layer of water above the surface of the sample. Because we make the sensor very close to the top of the sample to obtain a reference to the measure of mutual force is likely to stick to the sensor head in the sample and to prevent this from happening is to develop the style of others connected to the pattern you tapping mode in order to overcome this problem.

In the pattern you fluctuate arm up and down near the resonant frequency and vibration have a capacity greater than 10 nm, ranging between 100 and 200 nm. Given the strength of the mutual influence on the arm when approaching from the surface of the sample Vanderfal the strength or power pole interacting binaries or electrostatic forces cause a change in capacity and less frequency, the closer the sensor head from the surface of the sample. Up the arm is controlled by Bisoketrk working to adjust the height of the arm during a survey sample. The pattern of this operating mode an ongoing pattern of non-communication.

Measure the deviation of the beam in your AFM

Reflected laser beam diode on the back side of the growers and is controlled through the detector is sensitive to the subject position sensitive detector (PSD) consists of two Votodiodin near each other and outlet of the microphone connector Votodayud differential amplifier. Angular displacement of the arm makes one Aldieudin pick up a signal is greater than Aldieud other. This gives a signal proportional to the deviation of the arm. And reach the sensitivity of the device to detect a deviation of less than 10 nm. Change can be enlarged in the corner, up along the beam path of the laser beam a few centimeters.

Force spectroscopy Force Spectroscopy

In addition to the use of atomic force microscope to obtain images at the atomic level using the microscope in the analysis of force, relationship to the measurements of force between the head of the probe and the surface of the sample as a function of the distance between them get results, known as the power curve and the distance force-distance curve. In this way be extended probe head and dragging the surface of the sample during the control arm as a function of deviation in removing Albisoketrik. This functionality is used in the measurements at the nanoscale such as links to the atomic forces and the forces of Vanrdval Kaysamar and the forces of decay in liquids and individual molecules and the forces of expansion and rupture. This force is very small within Allbeckonewton piconewton can not be measured in any other device and now it's measured AFM device and on the analytical precision of up to 0.1 nm. Can be obtained on the force spectroscopy measurements in both a typical operating static and dynamic.

To identify atoms and excellence
Image crystallize sodium chloride by atomic force microscope
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Uses standard atomic force AFM to obtain images of atoms, but also moved to the surfaces of materials. An atom at the top of the sensor sensitive to the atoms on the surface of an atom atom sample and a force with all the chemical atom. Because of these interactions alter the precise frequency vibration sensor head, they can be measured and sketched. On this basis, the distinction between atoms of silicon and tuna on the surface and lead alloy, by comparing the fingerprint Atomic and enlarge. Been observed that the head of the probe interacts strongly with the silicon atoms while the atoms interact with the tuna and lead less powerful. For this, the different atoms can be characterized in the form of a matrix during the passage of the sensor head on the surface of the sample.
Advantages and disadvantages

Atomic force microscope AFM has several advantages for scanning electron microscope SEM. It is also not the same as scanning electron microscope, which provides images two-dimensional Femicroskub atomic force gives three-dimensional images of the surface, in addition to that the samples do not require address the special as in the electron microscope Kngtitha carbon or gold, this invalidate the sample, and the microscope works in normal circumstances in while the electron microscope requires that the work in a vacuum. This has made atomic force microscope to study the organ of the living cell. The atomic force microscope has a high analytical capacity beyond the capacity of SEM and STM.
One disadvantage of AFM compared to a device with a SEM is the size of the image. The move, SEM is able to size up to a few millimeters and a depth of up to a few millimeters, but the AFM device works on an area of 150x150 micrometers and a depth of 10-20 micrometer. However, this defect has been dealt with through the development of devices by AFM, IBM is working Bmjsin parallel.

The use of the head sensor tip is not suitable may give some defects in the resulting image. In addition to the AFM works slowly compared with the SEM, which gives a vivid picture of the sample, the AFM requires that works for a few minutes to give a picture. This delay leads to thermal drift in the image, which makes atomic force microscope is not suitable for accurate measurements of distances on the topographic image. Devices are being developed AFM to overcome this problem with known videoAFM and running more quickly than in SEM.

AFM images are affected by hysteresis in the material retardation Albisoketrik and overlap in the signals captured for each of the x, y during the survey but this was overcome by using sophisticated software and special filters or by using separate orthogonal scanners.

U.S. Nuclear Reactors Could be Made in China

Groups representing some of America’s top manufacturers are registering complaints publicly and with the Obama administration over the proposed federal loan guarantee to build two nuclear reactors in Georgia, the manufacturing of which they say will be sourced overseas.

American manufacturers claim that jobs created by taxpayer-backed loan guarantees should be domestic jobs. They also claim that the nuclear reactor components should be American-made due to safety concerns.

The Obama administration last week announced $8.33 billion in loan guarantees for the creation of two new nuclear reactors to be built near Augusta, Georgia, saying the project will create hundreds of American jobs.

But domestic manufacturers have claimed that many of the parts will be manufactured overseas, mainly in Asia. Because the U.S. has built no nuclear reactors in the past three decades, many of the components are designed and produced exclusively overseas.

“If we’re going to start shoveling a lot of money at nuclear, and nuclear is part of America’s plan to get less oil-dependent, then we need to build it ourselves,” Thomas M. Conway, vice president for the United Steelworkers union said in a statement.

Many leaders in the manufacturing industry fear that China could take a leading role in producing many of the essential parts that will go into the reactors.


Writing for the Huffington Post, Executive Director of the Alliance for American Manufacturing Scott Paul says that the components should be manufactured in America for the simple fact that regulators can better monitor the safety of the products.

“It just does not make sense to manufacture components overseas, where our regulators have less ability to monitor safety,” he writes. “More directly, it makes absolutely no sense to allow the manufacture of critical nuclear power components in China, which has a very spotty track record on product safety.”

Scott points out that in recent years Chinese-made products imported to the U.S. including steel, toys, tires, pet foods, blood thinner medication and toothpaste have all raised safety concerns for one reason or another.

“Combining outsourcing with nuclear safety is dangerous chemistry — and risky politics,” he writes.

USW President Leo Gerard, in a letter sent to the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, said that the pursuit of free trade should not get in the way of good policy and product safety.



“Utilizing domestic capacity will not only help to spur economic growth and employment, but will ensure that we have the highest degree of confidence in the safety, security and integrity of the products being used in nuclear reactors,” he wrote. “Safety should not fall prey to free trade ideology nor simply be auctioned off to the lowest bidder. The safety and security of our citizens must be our paramount concern."

Definition language CGI

The word means CGI common gateway interface, a small programs end extension CGI or PL and is written in Perl and the mother, some of the size of 1 KB and does not exceed 200 KB.

May read less do some relevance but can be limited to the benefits of this type of program, like most mailing lists that spread in the locations used a CGI in order to complete their work and remind forums we talk about all dependent files CGI and Oziedkm example some sites specialized in greeting cards and locations of the talks and sites Dating and others, as most of the models you see in the Internet depends on the CGI file, such as e-mail forms and forms that ask you to put data and then send.

I think that when you master the language well CGI will be able to establish a register of visitors to your site as you can put a forum or researcher or lists ... etc.

Requirements of the work on the CGI

Files CGI has no program displays a text files can be exploited by any text editor such as Notepad or WordPad or Word, and was in the past When you create a CGI you connect to the Internet in order to see your site such as the language of html when you edit your profile you should see the result when you are connected The Internet now have dozens of programs that allow you to preview your work without Alitsalb Internet programs such as FrontPage as well as the same for CGI programs, there are currently enables you to run CGI files in your computer and connect to the Internet and you need some programs in that:

The library PERL:

Is a library to run CGI files as when you load the library must be placed in a folder named perl in C.

Programme Omni Httpd:

Is a Serveur your own running CGI files without transfer to the hosting company in the Internet.

Program Ws-Ftp:

This program is the most famous programs in the transfer of sites from your PC to the company hosting your site also prefer to use CGI to transfer files to your site after completion of the work and make sure work is correct.

Kalmvkrp text editor:

Notepad or WordPad will help you to open the files of the CGI and the amendment.

This brief meaning of CGI files and programs to help them and that lets you create files great.

Energy in chemical reactions

The benefits of magnetic water
Has shown a lot of research and experiments carried out in several scientific centers specializing in various countries of the world, that one of the main reasons that cause many of the problems facing mankind now closely linked to changes that occur at the level of magnetic fields of the planet. These changes are those that can clearly explain why people went in different countries are suffering from serious infections almost reach the level of epidemic diseases, as a direct result of the activities of the life of the environment by all humanity and without exception, which led to the imbalance dramatically in the ecological balance , demonstrated its manifestations in the form of a planetary catastrophe as a phenomenon of global warming, and because of these activities, which did not take the very beginning of Guanyin, the ecological balance, land has lost more than 50% of its magnetic per thousand in the past only. And the installer scientifically that magnetic energy plays a central role in the organization of all life forms on the surface of the globe. Because they form a protective shield to prevent the arrival of the deadly cosmic rays such as gamma rays and X-ray, and it also plays a very important role in the organization of the vital functions of all living organisms.
And from between one of the main reasons to the spread of health problems we are experiencing today is a form of contemporary life in which we live that would isolate us from benefiting from the positive effect of the magnetic field of the Lord. We live in houses of cement-lined iron and steel, and this material is considered to be insulating materials to prevent our bodies absorb the magnetic energy coming from space, and necessary, to streamline operations and physiological prerequisites Albyukimiiip inside. Which complicates the matter even more is that we have come on a daily basis dealing with radios, and television, and computer, and mobile ... Etc., is well known that these devices make abnormal magnetic fields suspected of being linked directly to some health problems such as headache, fatigue, poor eyesight, poor digestion, pain different body ..... Etc..
And has shown the tests conducted in Japan in the fifties of the last century that the existence of rights for long periods in isolation from the direct impact of the strong magnetic natural lead to an imbalance in the equilibrium diversity of the human body, and of the loss of vitality and activity, and pains and aches are dispersed the body, in addition to intermittent headache, and feeling dizzy, and this makes us the symptoms displayed, and easy prey to many diseases, which can each be lethal.
From all of that we can understand why the natural magnetic energy is a key factor and can not be vital to life on the Earth's surface that upright without it?
Dynamic magnet inside the human body.
As is well known that the human body consists of trillions of cells, which are subsequently different body tissues and blood. These cells work accurately and tightly. And supports the activity of these cells or inactivity of the magnetic energy, where each cell of the body is a magneto small. And the body to send pulses of electromagnetic energy from the brain via the nervous system of the cells until you perform its functions according to need, with the body. These biological processes are complex high-speed, helps the body so as to deal itself without reaching the stage of the disease, as shipments of the body be in the case of a tie, and this kind of internal biological equilibrium is termed the dynamic magnet.
And see the many scientists that the science employment magnet in the areas of health and various medical will have a lead in the foreseeable future, because he was inspired by pristine nature, and is what is now called the "friend of the environment", which has no side effects compared with chemical drugs and toxic industrial materials that we use on a daily basis. And the latest research has proved that the medical body is exposed to magnetic fields, can affect the capacity of each cell of the body due to its ability to access high inside. This explains the remarkable effect of magnetic fields in treating wounds, as proven to reduce fibrosis, and perforation in wounds of different origin. And as was also proven that exposure to magnetic fields reduces the sense of pain for patients with specific conditions such as dental pain, stiffness and pain of joints and, in addition to assistance in the treatment of eczema and asthma. It was observed that the magnetic field power directly proportional to the type of biological processes that occur within the cells and the type of tissue exposed to magnetic fields.
Magnetic techniques to help find solutions to the problem of water shortages and problems related to agriculture.
Perhaps among the most promising areas, which can be techniques for the magnet to help find solutions to them is the problem of "lack of water", which is at the present time, one of the most serious problems facing the world in general, and the Arab world in particular, which more than Compounding the problem is that the exacerbation of the problem of water continuously, and so it was not coincidence that the scientists began raising alarms over the risk to that future wars will be due to the severe shortage of potable water supply for employment in various fields. And despite the fact that the Arab region are rich sources of natural water, but that poor rationalization of consumption, and employment of traditional methods in the preserved natural water sources, and waste disposal plants toxic chemicals and to discharge into the cavity of the sea and rivers, which makes matters worse is the increase steady in the number of stations that desalinate water, which ultimately leads to increased salinity of the sea and rivers.
And many scientists see in disarray and the process of water desalination by traditional methods are not killed, but will slow the water, because the desalination depends on the addition of certain chemicals such as chlorine and fluoride, and ammonium salts, which is scientifically proven adverse impact on people's health. Add to that the water is subjected to the operations of condensation, and air pressure is higher, leading to what are termed the "dead water". When using this water will have lost a lot of unique and vital properties, and causing a lot of different health problems.
And of all the above it is clear that the process of finding new ways to reduce the negative impacts of desalination, using methods consistent with the laws of nature, can help undoubtedly solve many health problems and environmental, in particular, and if we take into account that there are at least one billion people worldwide do not have clean water and safe to drink, or drink contaminated with Mea, according to reports from international organizations working in this area. which explains clearly the proliferation of the vast quantity of infectious diseases or those that were not already known before. Which complicates the matter even more is that about 60% of the water we drink is water and an unhealthy loss of vitality from the biological standpoint, and this water is conventionally called the "dead water".
Among the more promising technologies that can help to overcome the negative effects of drinking or the use of local water, or contaminated process is the use of pipeline works on a special magnetic magnetized drinking water, or those that are used in various industries, and by passing water through the magnetic tubes, and then we can Nhsol on what can be called termed a "magnetic water". That the magnetized water is an attempt simplified to mimic what happens in nature completely, and because the water when it passes through the magnetic field naturally become more vibrant, and active biological standpoint, it helps to improve the movement of blood and connected to the body's tissues and cells, which significantly help in raising the capacity of the immune system. After magnetizing water changed a lot of properties and chemical Aelovesiaiip. And have noticed that the magnetized water helps to dissolve salts and acids, a higher level of water is not magnetic, and and that water is magnetized to have a property of dissolving oxygen higher degree of local water, in addition to Tsrsa chemical reactions and have demonstrated our research that the magnetized water helps significantly in the clean-up operations and to get rid of the bacteria, and many chemical contaminants. On the other hand our research proved that drinking magnetized water at the rate of UK daily, especially in hot countries help rid our bodies of large amounts of various toxins in our bodies within, and also help to improve the functioning of the digestive system. And there are many cases of patients who complain of a Hasawi in total disintegration and went out of their bodies without taking any kind of drugs, and without surgical intervention as and there are cases of disease controversial, some chronic and for a long time we have for a remedy by drinking and bathing water Magnifier With the recruitment of some other magnetic devices for the same purpose. And theoretically assume that drinking water magnetic continuously can help in the prevention of injury from stroke, and stroke, and stiffness of the arteries, and problems related to blood pressure, and because the water magnetic activates the movement of blood within the arteries and veins, and helps in dissolving the salt deposits on surfaces. As well as assess and address of the acidity of the stomach, constipation, and chronic headache. And see the famous American doctor Kenneth McLean that "magnet is a gift of it to God, is with the benefit of everything." It is believed by many scientists and researchers that magnet therapy will become one of the main pillars of alternative medicine in the diagnosis and treatment, and confirmation of this is that the most secure and accurate device used in the field of medical diagnostic device is currently "" MRI
Start the body to treat himself
In the agricultural field, the tests applied were conducted in both the UAE and Sudan, and Egypt, and Indonesia have been heralded by the outcome of important water-use magnetic operations to irrigate crops, and magnetized seeds for many of the plants before you start planting, as magnetized seeds Isa'dali activation energy potential. And support the recruitment techniques magnetic irrigation taking Alaattabaraadp factors, including salinity of the water, and soil salinity, and speed the flow of water from the devices used for irrigation and kind. And by the fact that water Magnifier helps in breaking up and fragmentation of powerful ministries salts, it will greatly help the clear-laundering soil and help plants to absorb water and minerals easily, even in soils high salinity and the light of information available to us, the process of irrigation water, magnetic helps to accelerate the maturity of crops, and increase the ability of plants and crops to resist diseases, and obtaining the crops agricultural good in terms of quantity and type, and more importantly, that the magnetized water helps in the provision of water used in irrigation, and reduce the use of chemical fertilizers, which will reflect positively on the health of the environment and people.
Now under way and some studies and research in the recruitment of so-called "sediment magnetism," which comes with the Nile waters, which are believed to be a revolution in the agricultural field, and especially in the employment of this technique in the desert areas
And not only employ magnetic technology only to medical and agricultural areas and water desalination, but can also be employed in the field of thermal energy, and petroleum industry, and petrochemicals, and construction as the use of cement amended by magnetized water increases with the magnitude of potential savings in cement, and new technology for food, and even in the field of research, artificial rain.
And other benefits of magnetic water, its ability to increase the strength of detergents, solvents, enough to make it possible to use a third or a quarter of the amount used is usually from this cleaner.
In cases of normal contamination of lake water, the magnetically treated water made the lake water fit for human consumption Consumption.
In the area of animal husbandry, the application of this technology leads to a marked increase in the weights and the growth of small animals as well as an increase in the rate of milk production and a decline in Mgdl deaths. The results are excellent in the field of poultry by weight gain.
As well as magnetized water helps to kill bacteria and algae. In this regard, it can be used with swimming pools If the magnetic water basin can be used half the amount of chlorine used for several water purification.
There is no doubt that the science magnet, and will contribute to the active contributions in finding effective solutions to many health problems and environmental suffered by mankind in general and the Arab region in particular, and because these sciences are based on the close relationship between man and nature.

World Digital Library

Since the days celebrated by UNESCO and the researchers and librarians in particular - across the world - the opening of the World Digital Library in Paris, attended the celebration and the many facets of personalities scientific, cultural and even political. "The site includes a new library manuscripts, maps, rare books, and films, sound recordings, prints and photographs. The site is available to all free of charge, according to the website of the United Nations "1.

What is the World Digital Library?
And those who do not know the World Digital Library is a scientific project civilized proposed by Librarian of Congress in the United States James H. Billington in a speech before the U.S. Committee Altdpalotunaip of UNESCO in June 2005, was the basic idea is to Establish a BSA from the wealth of the world's cultural web-based and easily accessible 2, participated in the project many countries, including Arab countries - and thankfully - and some of the scientific and cultural institutions, including Google, Microsoft, Qatar Foundation, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology in Saudi Arabia, ... but none of the partners.

holly quran channel

Artificial Intelligence

Lecture - 1 Introduction
This video lecture series by Prof. P. Dasgupta, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, I.I.T,kharagpur includes Introduction, Problem Solving by Search, Searching with Costs, Informed State Space Search, Heuristic Search- A* and Beyond, Problem Reduction Search: AND-OR Graphs, Searching Game Trees, Knowledge Based Systems: Logic and Deduction, First Order Logic, Inference in First Order Logic, Resolution - Refutation Proofs, Logic Programming-Prolog, Introduction to Planning, Partial Order Planning, GraphPLAN and SATPlan, Reasoning Under Uncertainity, Bayesian Networks, Neural Networks and more...

http://www.learnerstv.com/lectures.php?course=ltv067&cat=Computers&page=1

Nuclear physics

Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies the building blocks and interactions of atomic nuclei. The most commonly known applications of nuclear physics are nuclear power and nuclear weapons, but the research has provided wider applications, including those in medicine (nuclear medicine, magnetic resonance imaging), materials engineering (ion implantation) and archaeology (radiocarbon dating).

The field of particle physics evolved out of nuclear physics and, for this reason, has been included under the same term in earlier times

History

The discovery of the electron by J. J. Thomson was the first indication that the atom had internal structure. At the turn of the 20th century the accepted model of the atom was J. J. Thomson's "plum pudding" model in which the atom was a large positively charged ball with small negatively charged electrons embedded inside of it. By the turn of the century physicists had also discovered three types of radiation coming from atoms, which they named alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. Experiments in 1911 by Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn, and by James Chadwick in 1914 discovered that the beta decay spectrum was continuous rather than discrete. That is, electrons were ejected from the atom with a range of energies, rather than the discrete amounts of energies that were observed in gamma and alpha decays. This was a problem for nuclear physics at the time, because it indicated that energy was not conserved in these decays.

In 1905, Albert Einstein formulated the idea of mass–energy equivalence. While the work on radioactivity by Becquerel, Pierre and Marie Curie predates this, an explanation of the source of the energy of radioactivity would have to wait for the discovery that the nucleus itself was composed of smaller constituents, the nucleons.

Rutherford's team discovers the nucleus

In 1907 Ernest Rutherford published "Radiation of the α Particle from Radium in passing through Matter".[1] Geiger expanded on this work in a communication to the Royal Society[2] with experiments he and Rutherford had done passing α particles through air, aluminum foil and gold leaf. More work was published in 1909 by Geiger and Marsden[3] and further greatly expanded work was published in 1910 by Geiger,[4] In 1911-2 Rutherford went before the Royal Society to explain the experiments and propound the new theory of the atomic nucleus as we now understand it.

The key experiment behind this announcement happened in 1910 as Ernest Rutherford's team performed a remarkable experiment in which Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden under his supervision fired alpha particles (helium nuclei) at a thin film of gold foil. The plum pudding model predicted that the alpha particles should come out of the foil with their trajectories being at most slightly bent. Rutherford had the idea to instruct his team to look for something that shocked him to actually observe: a few particles were scattered through large angles, even completely backwards, in some cases. He likened it to firing a bullet at tissue paper and having it bounce off. The discovery, beginning with Rutherford's analysis of the data in 1911, eventually led to the Rutherford model of the atom, in which the atom has a very small, very dense nucleus containing most of its mass, and consisting of heavy positively charged particles with embedded electrons in order to balance out the charge (since the neutron was unknown). As an example, in this model (which is not the modern one) nitrogen-14 consisted of a nucleus with 14 protons and 7 electrons (21 total particles), and the nucleus was surrounded by 7 more orbiting electrons.

The Rutherford model worked quite well until studies of nuclear spin were carried out by Franco Rasetti at the California Institute of Technology in 1929. By 1925 it was known that protons and electrons had a spin of 1/2, and in the Rutherford model of nitrogen-14, 20 of the total 21 nuclear particles should have paired up to cancel each other's spin, and the final odd particle should have left the nucleus with a net spin of 1/2. Rasetti discovered, however, that nitrogen-14 has a spin of 1.

James Chadwick discovers the neutron

In 1932 Chadwick realized that radiation that had been observed by Walther Bothe, Herbert L. Becker, Irène and Frédéric Joliot-Curie was actually due to a neutral particle of about the same mass as the proton, that he called the neutron (following a suggestion about the need for such a particle, by Rutherford). In the same year Dmitri Ivanenko suggested that neutrons were in fact spin 1/2 particles and that the nucleus contained neutrons to explain the mass not due to protons, and that there were no electrons in the nucleus—only protons and neutrons. The neutron spin immediately solved the problem of the spin of nitrogen-14, as the one unpaired proton and one unpaired neutron in this model, each contribute a spin of 1/2 in the same direction, for a final total spin of 1.

With the discovery of the neutron, scientists at last could calculate what fraction of binding energy each nucleus had, from comparing the nuclear mass with that of the protons and neutrons which composed it. Differences between nuclear masses were calculated in this way and—when nuclear reactions were measured—were found to agree with Einstein's calculation of the equivalence of mass and energy to high accuracy (within 1% as of in 1934).

Yukawa's meson postulated to bind nuclei

In 1935 Hideki Yukawa proposed the first significant theory of the strong force to explain how the nucleus holds together. In the Yukawa interaction a virtual particle, later called a meson, mediated a force between all nucleons, including protons and neutrons. This force explained why nuclei did not disintegrate under the influence of proton repulsion, and it also gave an explanation of why the attractive strong force had a more limited range than the electromagnetic repulsion between protons. Later, the discovery of the pi meson showed it to have the properties of Yukawa's particle.

With Yukawa's papers, the modern model of the atom was complete. The center of the atom contains a tight ball of neutrons and protons, which is held together by the strong nuclear force, unless it is too large. Unstable nuclei may undergo alpha decay, in which they emit an energetic helium nucleus, or beta decay, in which they eject an electron (or positron). After one of these decays the resultant nucleus may be left in an excited state, and in this case it decays to its ground state by emitting high energy photons (gamma decay).

The study of the strong and weak nuclear forces (the latter explained by Enrico Fermi via Fermi's interaction in 1934) led physicists to collide nuclei and electrons at ever higher energies. This research became the science of particle physics, the crown jewel of which is the standard model of particle physics which unifies the strong, weak, and electromagnetic forces.

Modern nuclear physics
A heavy nucleus can contain hundreds of nucleons which means that with some approximation it can be treated as a classical system, rather than a quantum-mechanical one. In the resulting liquid-drop model, the nucleus has an energy which arises partly from surface tension and partly from electrical repulsion of the protons. The liquid-drop model is able to reproduce many features of nuclei, including the general trend of binding energy with respect to mass number, as well as the phenomenon of nuclear fission.

Superimposed on this classical picture, however, are quantum-mechanical effects, which can be described using the nuclear shell model, developed in large part by Maria Goeppert-Mayer. Nuclei with certain numbers of neutrons and protons (the magic numbers 2, 8, 20, 50, 82, 126, ...) are particularly stable, because their shells are filled.

Other more complicated models for the nucleus have also been proposed, such as the interacting boson model, in which pairs of neutrons and protons interact as bosons, analogously to Cooper pairs of electrons.

Much of current research in nuclear physics relates to the study of nuclei under extreme conditions such as high spin and excitation energy. Nuclei may also have extreme shapes (similar to that of Rugby balls) or extreme neutron-to-proton ratios. Experimenters can create such nuclei using artificially induced fusion or nucleon transfer reactions, employing ion beams from an accelerator. Beams with even higher energies can be used to create nuclei at very high temperatures, and there are signs that these experiments have produced a phase transition from normal nuclear matter to a new state, the quark-gluon plasma, in which the quarks mingle with one another, rather than being segregated in triplets as they are in neutrons and protons.

Modern topics in nuclear physics
There are 80 elements which have at least one stable isotope (defined as isotopes never observed to decay), and in total there are about 256 such stable isotopes. However, there are thousands more well-characterized isotopes which are unstable. These radioisotopes may be unstable and decay in all timescales ranging from fractions of a second to weeks, years, or many billions of years.

For example, if a nucleus has too few or too many neutrons it may be unstable, and will decay after some period of time. For example, in a process called beta decay a nitrogen-16 atom (7 protons, 9 neutrons) is converted to an oxygen-16 atom (8 protons, 8 neutrons) within a few seconds of being created. In this decay a neutron in the nitrogen nucleus is turned into a proton and an electron and antineutrino, by the weak nuclear force. The element is transmuted to another element in the process, because while it previously had seven protons (which makes it nitrogen) it now has eight (which makes it oxygen).

In alpha decay the radioactive element decays by emitting a helium nucleus (2 protons and 2 neutrons), giving another element, plus helium-4. In many cases this process continues through several steps of this kind, including other types of decays, until a stable element is formed.

In gamma decay, a nucleus decays from an excited state into a lower state by emitting a gamma ray. It is then stable. The element is not changed in the process.

Other more exotic decays are possible (see the main article). For example, in internal conversion decay, the energy from an excited nucleus may be used to eject one of the inner orbital electrons from the atom, in a process which produces high speed electrons, but is not beta decay, and (unlike beta decay) does not transmute one element to another.

Nuclear fusion
When two low mass nuclei come into very close contact with each other it is possible for the strong force to fuse the two together. It takes a great deal of energy to push the nuclei close enough together for the strong or nuclear forces to have an effect, so the process of nuclear fusion can only take place at very high temperatures or high densities. Once the nuclei are close enough together the strong force overcomes their electromagnetic repulsion and squishes them into a new nucleus. A very large amount of energy is released when light nuclei fuse together because the binding energy per nucleon increases with mass number up until nickel-62. Stars like our sun are powered by the fusion of four protons into a helium nucleus, two positrons, and two neutrinos. The uncontrolled fusion of hydrogen into helium is known as thermonuclear runaway. Research to find an economically viable method of using energy from a controlled fusion reaction is currently being undertaken by various research establishments (see JET and ITER).

Nuclear fission
For nuclei heavier than nickel-62 the binding energy per nucleon decreases with the mass number. It is therefore possible for energy to be released if a heavy nucleus breaks apart into two lighter ones. This splitting of atoms is known as nuclear fission.

The process of alpha decay may be thought of as a special type of spontaneous nuclear fission. This process produces a highly asymmetrical fission because the four particles which make up the alpha particle are especially tightly bound to each other, making production of this nucleus in fission particularly likely.

For certain of the heaviest nuclei which produce neutrons on fission, and which also easily absorb neutrons to initiate fission, a self-igniting type of neutron-initiated fission can be obtained, in a so-called chain reaction. (Chain reactions were known in chemistry before physics, and in fact many familiar processes like fires and chemical explosions are chemical chain reactions.) The fission or "nuclear" chain-reaction, using fission-produced neutrons, is the source of energy for nuclear power plants and fission type nuclear bombs such as the two that the United States used against Hiroshima and Nagasaki at the end of World War II. Heavy nuclei such as uranium and thorium may undergo spontaneous fission, but they are much more likely to undergo decay by alpha decay.

For a neutron-initiated chain-reaction to occur, there must be a critical mass of the element present in a certain space under certain conditions (these conditions slow and conserve neutrons for the reactions). There is one known example of a natural nuclear fission reactor, which was active in two regions of Oklo, Gabon, Africa, over 1.5 billion years ago. Measurements of natural neutrino emission have demonstrated that around half of the heat emanating from the Earth's core results from radioactive decay. However, it is not known if any of this results from fission chain-reactions.